1000 Chemistry Skills students need to master basic chemistry

1000 Chemistry Skills

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"In the benzene nucleus we have&nbsp;been given a soil&nbsp;out of which we can see with surprise the already-known realm of organic chemistry multiply, not once or twice but three, four, five or six times just like an equivalent number of trees." August Wilhelm von Hofmann

Organic chemistry is&nbsp;a branch of chemistry that studies the structure, properties and reactions of&nbsp;organic compounds, which contain carbon in covalent&nbsp;.....

Structures &amp; Formulae Alkanes

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Matter in all states is made up of particles. Particles forming matter can be represented by small solid spheres

Matter in all states is made up of particles. Particles forming matter can be represented by small solid spheres

Process of fractional distillation

Explanation Fractional distillation is carried out in a fractionating column. The fractionating column is hot at the bottom and cool at the top. Crude oil enters the fractionating column and is heated so vapours rise. Vapors of hydrocarbons with very high boiling points will immediately turn into liquid and are tapped off at the bottom of the column. Vapors of hydrocarbons with low boiling points will rise up the column and condense at the top to be tapped off. The different fractions condense at different heights according to their boiling points and are tapped off as liquids. The fractions containing smaller hydrocarbons are collected at the top of the fractionating column as gases. The fractions containing bigger hydrocarbons are collected at the lower sections of the fractionating column.

Organic Chemistry Part 1: Organic Chemistry &amp; Fuels Names of Compounds Organic Compound Names, Structures &amp; Types Introduction Organic Chemistry is the scientific study of the structure, properties, and reactions of organic compounds. Organic compounds are those which contain carbon. For conventional reasons metal carbonates, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide are&nbsp;not&nbsp;included in organic compounds. Definition of a hydrocarbon A compound that contains&nbsp;only&nbsp;hydrogen and carbon atoms.

Combustion of hydrocarbons These compounds undergo complete and incomplete combustion. Complete combustion occurs when there is&nbsp;excess oxygen&nbsp;so water and carbon dioxide form e.g., Incomplete combustion occurs when there is&nbsp;insufficient oxygen&nbsp;to burn so either carbon monoxide and water&nbsp;or&nbsp;carbon and water form e.g.,

Names of compounds The names of organic compounds have two parts: the prefix or stem and the end part (or suffix). The prefix tells you how many carbon atoms are present in the longest continuous chain in the compound. The suffix tells you what&nbsp;functional group&nbsp;is on the compound.

Particulate Nature of Matter

Solids&nbsp; Strong&nbsp;forces of attraction&nbsp;between particles, particles are packed very closely together in a fixed and regular pattern. Atoms&nbsp;vibrate&nbsp;in position but can’t change position or move. Solids have a&nbsp;fixed&nbsp;volume, shape and high density. Liquids Weaker attractive forces in liquids than in solids, particles are close together in an&nbsp;irregular,&nbsp;unfixed. Particles can&nbsp;move&nbsp;and&nbsp;slide&nbsp;past each other which is why liquids adopt the shape of the container they’re in and also why they are able to flow. Liquids have a fixed volume but not a fixed shape and have a moderate to high&nbsp;density. Gases No&nbsp;intermolecular forces, particles are in&nbsp;random movement&nbsp;and so there is no defined pattern. Particles are far apart and move quickly (around 500 m/s) in all directions, they&nbsp;collide&nbsp;with each other and with the sides of the container (this is how&nbsp;pressure&nbsp;is created inside a can of gas). No fixed volume, since there is a lot of space between the particles, gases can be compressed into a much smaller volume. Gases have low density.

Particles of matter represented as small spheres or circles

Solids, liquids and gases have different physical properties. The difference in these properties comes from&nbsp;differences in how the particles are arranged&nbsp;in each state.

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Atoms , they can be peace , they can be love , they can be destruction and fear , it is how you join them , or may be break ?!

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 01 . . Particulate Nature of Matter Chapter 02 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 03 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 04 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 05 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 06 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 07 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 08 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 09 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Compounds that have the&nbsp;same molecular&nbsp;formula but&nbsp;different structural&nbsp;formulae. This is due to the different arrangement of their atoms in space. There are two types:&nbsp;chain&nbsp;and&nbsp;position. In chain isomerism the structure of the carbon chain differs. In position isomerism, the position of the functional group differs.

Position isomers of propanol: 1-propanol or propan-1-ol on the left and propan-2-ol on the right

These are the skills that students will be tested in mostly in questions and exams about the particulate nature of matter

◼ One of the most important skills you need to master is to be able to compare between the different physical states Rhoncus commodo malesuada non, vulputate porta leo. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. ◼ Students need to be able to draw a small diagram that represents each of the states as small circles Nulla leo eros gravida at maximus a, fermentum in turpis. Viverra risus. Mauris mollis purus ut nibh sodales, nec ornare enim sodales. ◼ Explain if solids, liquids and gases have a definite shape ,volume and if they can flow Lorem ipsum quisque leo tortor rhoncus commodo malesuada non, vulputate porta leo, dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. ◼ Suspendisse potenti.Nunc in consequat diam Donec non lacus justo. Gravida at maximus. Nulla leo eros fermentum in turpis. Mauris mollis.

&#9724; Gravida at maximus a, fermentum in turpis. Donec non lacus justo. Suspendisse potenti. Nunc in consequat diam. Ut ornare eu velit sed consectetur. Lorem ipsum quisque leo tortor rhoncus commodo malesuada non, vulputate porta leo, dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. &#9724; Blandit nunc semper efficitur magna sem nec erat. Quisque non mauris gravida, feugiat dolor eget? Rhoncus commodo malesuada non, vulputate porta leo. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. &#9724; Quisque leo tortor rhoncus commodo malesuada non, vulputate porta leo. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Nulla leo eros gravida at maximus a, fermentum in turpis. Viverra risus. Mauris mollis purus ut nibh sodales, nec ornare enim sodales. &#9724; Donec non lacus justo. Suspendisse potenti. Nunc in consequat diam. Feugiat dolor eget. Blandit nunc semper efficitur magna sem nec erat. Quisque non mauris gravida. Lorem ipsum quisque leo tortor rhoncus commodo malesuada non, vulputate porta leo, dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit.

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One of the most important skills you need to master is to be able to compare between the different physical states Assignment : Describe the structure of solids , liquids and gases in terms of particle separation , arrangement and types of motion.

Explain if solids, liquids and gases have a definite shape ,volume and if they can flow

•A Solid has a definite shape and volume but can not flow. •A Liquid has a definite volume but has no fixed shape as it takes the shape of the container and it can flow. •A Gas has no definite shape or volume , it can spread everywhere through the container

Common Fossil Fuels&nbsp; A fuel is a substance which when burned, releases heat energy. This heat can be transferred into electricity, which we use in our daily lives. Most common fossil fuels include coal, natural gas and hydrocarbons such as methane and propane which are obtained from crude oil. The main constituent of natural gas is&nbsp;methane,

The molecules in each fraction have similar&nbsp;properties&nbsp;and&nbsp;boiling points, which depend on the number of carbon atoms in the chain. The&nbsp;boiling point&nbsp;and&nbsp;viscosity&nbsp;of each fraction increases as the carbon chain gets longer.

Petroleum &amp; Fractional Distillation&nbsp;

Petroleum is also called&nbsp;crude oil&nbsp;and is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons which also contains natural gas. It is a thick, sticky, black liquid that is found under porous rock (under the ground and under the sea). Petroleum itself as a mixture isn’t very useful but each component part of the mixture, called a&nbsp;fraction, is useful and each fraction has different applications. The fractions in petroleum are separated from each other in a process called&nbsp;fractional distillation.

Structures When there is more than one carbon atom where a functional group can be located it is important to distinguish exactly&nbsp;which carbon&nbsp;the functional group is on. Each carbon is numbered, and these numbers are used to describe where the functional group is. When 2 functional groups are present&nbsp;di-&nbsp;is used as a prefix to the second part of the name. Branching&nbsp;also needs to be considered, the carbon atoms with the branches are described by their number. When the location of functional groups and branches needs to be described the functional group takes&nbsp;precedence,&nbsp; so the functional group has the&nbsp;lowest&nbsp;number.

Note For defining a hydrocarbon, you must specify that they are compounds which contain hydrogen and carbon atoms&nbsp;only, no other element is present. You may not be asked to name branched chain organic compounds, but you will come across them. It is useful to know that the numbers in the names of these compounds refer to the position of the side chains with respect to the main chain.

This is a series or family of organic compounds that have similar features and chemical properties due to them having the same functional group. All members of a homologous series have: The same general formula Same functional group Similar chemical properties Gradation&nbsp;in their physical properties The difference in the molecular formula between one member and the next is Functional group This is a group of atoms which are bonded in a specific arrangement that is responsible for the characteristic reactions of each member of a homologous series. Suspendisse potenti. Nunc in consequat diam. Ut ornare eu velit sed consectetur. Duis in lorem interdum, sollicitudin mauris non, iaculis libero. Curabitur ullamcorper, mauris vitae imperdiet hendrerit, felis nulla congue ligula, at malesuada nisl felis sit amet dolor.

Characteristics, Formula &amp; Structural Isomerism&nbsp;

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Names and structures of the functional groups

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1000 skills students need to master chemistry

Properties of the main fractions of crude oil

Uses of the different fractions obtained from petroleum (crude oil)

Viscosity:&nbsp;This refers to the ease of flow of a liquid. High viscosity liquids are thick and flow less easily. If the number of carbon atoms increases, the attraction between the hydrocarbon molecules also increases which results in the liquid becoming more viscous with the increasing length of the hydrocarbon chain. The liquid flows less easily with increasing molecular mass. Colour:&nbsp;As carbon chain length increases the colour of the liquid gets darker as it gets thicker and more viscous. Melting point/boiling point: As the molecules get larger, the intermolecular attraction becomes greater. So more heat is needed to separate the molecules. With increasing molecular size there is an increase in boiling point. Volatility:&nbsp;Volatility refers to the tendency of a substance to vaporize. With increasing molecular size hydrocarbon liquids become less volatile. This is because the attraction between the molecules increases with increasing molecular size.

Refinery gas: heating and cooking Gasoline: fuel for cars (petrol) Naphtha: raw product for producing chemicals Kerosene: for making jet fuel (paraffin) Diesel: fuel for diesel engines (gas oil) Fuel oil: fuel for ships and for home heating Lubricating oil: for lubricants, polishes, waxes Bitumen: for surfacing roads

Trend in boiling point of the main fractions

Note Some fractions may have different names in the UK and the USA. Names above in brackets are the UK while those underlined are the names used in the USA e.g. gasoline is the name used in the USA for petrol.

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Chapter 12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 14. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Practicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Past Papers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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